Box 71, Item 2: Working draft of Culture, philosophy, and approaches to the natural environment

Box 71, Item 2: Working draft of Culture, philosophy, and approaches to the natural environment

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The University of Queensland's Richard Sylvan Papers UQFL291, Box 71, Item 2

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WORKING DRAFT
CULTURE, PHILOSOPHY, AND APPROACHES TO THE NATURAL ENVIRONMENT

Many of you know that Canberra was originally

Griffin.

This

talk

is

dedicated

by

designed

simply

not

an

key elements of the Western industrial paradigm, especially
making

Servant

the

Nature

of

Man,

'land

to

...

be

the

accorded

He rejected

'concentration

discerned instead elements of a

and

His approach was holistic, and

different 'consciousness' (the word is his).

took

the

and

architect

designer but one of Australia’s early deeper ecologists.

landscape

Burley

You may not know that Griffin, an

to him.

American who migrated to Australia in 1913, was

on

Walter

respect

he

due to a highly developed and

perfected living organism not to be exterminated or treated as dead material, or

as

mere section of a map’.

a

Canberra, now no mere section of map, is perhaps

the best approximation anywhere to a deeper ecological city;

but it is not only

removed from Griffin’s original conception but far from deep ecological ideals.

*

*

*

*

*

The objective of the larger investigation, of which this
is

part,

to

gauge

the

extent

to

Australian

which

contrasted with American culture, contains developable

will

underpin

under which many

a

sketches

a

culture, especially as

elements

(seeds)

which

different political framework from the bastardised capitalism
people

presently

labour

and

local

environment

frequently

It is not necessary to see the present political arrangements and the

suffers.

political course

interested

in

charted

as

environmentally

alternative structures:

or

socially

disastrous

to

be

it is enough, for example, to view them

as far from satisfactory, or very far from

worlds,

talk

those

of

the

best

of

attainable

to be interested in the prospects of turning things around somewhat, to

increasing ecological resistance [negative action j against environment

like^and ecological construction [direct positive action].

the

and

vandalism^/

There are several distinctive features of Australian culture that

for

the

especially

hope,

damage^?,

grounds

give

remarkable level of environmental activism that has

It is worth trying to pull together

somehow emerged among the people.

some

of

these features of the culture, to look at ways of furthering the valuable parts,
and increasing the level of concern and activism.

Without doubt
attitudes

different

towards

practices,

and

cultures

have

the

approaches,

different

different

Indeed appreciation of,

environment.

practices towards, and respect for the natural environment are highly culturally
dependent:

for

compare,

American Jews and American Indians.

instance,

Most

nonimperial cultures had ~ and where they still survive uncorrupted still havi.

less

much

exploitative

industrial

and

to

not

practices

whose

North,

exploitation

approaches

the

merely

environmental

control

lost

their

of

local

typically under the missionary, colonial or imperial domination.

in

But occasionally, notably

retained

gross

permit

the

of

those

than

but to a marked extent depend upon such practices.

vandalism

Mostly these more benign cultures have however

environments,

environment

sufficient

autonomy

the

to

adjacent

Pacific,

regional

cultures

have

slow or even halt environmental destruction.

Thus, for example, rainforest damaging projects have been delayed or blocked

in

Melanesia largely through Melanesian attitudes to the land.

One important way then to try to slow environmental degradation, especially
in

the

South,

is

to

foster

both

sweepingly, regional cultural autonomy;
socialism

and

indigenous

certain

for

cultural
instance

land rights movements.

differences

to

support

way

of

Melanesian

For, where the cultures have

not been excessively corrupted by Northern influences, this is

rapid

and, more

a

comparatively

activating alternative paradigms to the dominant Northern social

The question arises whether

paradigms.

elsewhere

the

in

also

can

differences

serve

Antipodes, in particular in Australia, to at least assist in

transition to different

less

environmentally

social

exploitative

paradigms.

transition is unlikely to occur unless it is based on the culture.

a

Such

cultural

Can

features of the culture and the social life be used to foster and make requisite

differences?

In the case of Australia, a basis

is

there

both

the / land

in

</* U
culture,

and things

and

the

<L-

appear sufficiently different from that in the cultures
A

of the industrialised North to allow (some hope) for

Of

the

for change, at least if the natural environment is to retain some

need

semblance of integrity, there is little doubt.
that

is,

there

differentiation.

cultural

in

is

It

platitudinous

becoming

the longer run not much prospect for the integrity of many

local natural environments and ecosystems

unless

the

in

we

Antipodes

break

from the damaging cultural assumptions and practice of the industrialised

loose

work

North and

towards

establishment

of

a

elements of regionalism in the North, despite a
in

some

parts,

rising

tide

war.

of

For despite
environmental

the industrialised North still appears in the grip of

established forces and unlikely to budge in time - short of

nuclear

environmentally

culture, towards a certain regional cultural autonomy.

destructive

concern

less

different

disaster,

such

Though we who seek change can count on some support from minority

movements in the North, nonetheless if we are to achieve changes, we must go
largely

alone

as

Nor

is

it

task of paradigm transition entirely hopeless in

the

Australia because as well as the

advantage

of

the

ground

and

its

southern

KJ

and seeds of cultural difference are already there and growing. But
A
like, most] new and more fragile developments they need attention and^if speedy

location,

careful

cultivation

Such

a task is rendered urgent also by other matters of
0

environmental and human concern, not

but

colossal

biological

losses

st the gathering signs of

nuclear

ykthrough rapid destruction of, e.g.

r
3

war,

tropical

rainforests, indeed, mounting evidence of environmental decline almost everywhere

humans now establish.

How does philosophy fit into the strategy of harnessing regional culture to
&
A ;
alter approaches to the environment? As i/ the title of the ^lk it operates in
organising principles
L
okr the dynamic linkage in a good suspension bridge^which lifts the

the middle, not as an idle middleman, but more like
and

design

environmental way on the ropes of regional

links

A

culture.

working

picture

that

the main components of the discussion together - a picture that also like

most images of the more abstract distorts across

the

is

that

of

a

bridge

suspension

the gap often separating people from the natural environment.

There are

people, and the environment, and approaches by bridges to the environment,

like

so

(Of course people may be part of the natural environment:
exclude ' -hew

that

important

overlap.)

The

different sorts, ranging from rustic bridges

the

picture

doesn’t

connecting bridges may be of very
good

for

careful

foot

traffic,

through

the monumental suspension bridge at Middle Harbour, to modern high-tech

bridges able to carry nuclear tanks and bulldozers over large spans.

the

But it

is

structure of all these types of bridges carrying the approaches that matter

The spans are carried by the ropes of culture, and the pylons

particularly.

ot

culture if you will.

So

different

witii

different

cultures,

carrying

bridges

see the,component in the middle
d
philosophy, but it might almost as well be sociology - not as part of

approaches.

It

is

better

different

to

the

nuts

and bolts and rivets of the bridges, but rather as the design and engineering of

the structures.

types,

computing

It has its analytical parts, looking at the
the

loads

stresses

and

on them;

them

- the social paradigms embedded in the cultures.

select

substructures

Philosophy, the link

subject is then the architecture and engineering of the business.

5

their

and it also has its more

holistic elements, considering the bridges themselves and

of

components,

philosophy

figuratively,

Less

assumptions

that is, to be considered for

deep ecology, asks deeper
of

assumptions

assumptions

replacement,

and

deeper

questions,

of

example

free

fundamenta]

the

other subjects and assembling the intellectual assumptions

all

paradigms.

for

extracting

embodied in a culture or social way or life, i.e.

social

operative

Philosophy, especially metaphysics and not

or marxist philosophies.

enterprise

the

assembles

ancl

culture applied in environmental practices, the assumptions,

a

of

isolates

In

what are sometimes called the

tills respect philosophy - which includes much more than

conceptual analysis - is first among the intellectual subjects,

logic,

as

the

science of reasoning, is the first among the sciences, investigating the form of

arguments and methodology of all other sciences.

philosophical

investigation

1'he

assumptions

deeper

such

when put together yield a philosophy in

extracts,

ci c^y

the more popular sense (as e.g.

in philosophy of life or , the

free

enterprise

4

philosophy):

any

in

case

the

will be a philosophical theory or the

result

rudiments of a philosophical paradigm, depending on how it is done.

By largely philosophical investigation then,

of

assumptions

the

techniques we try

with

contrasted

operative
test

to

apparent

we

trij.ce

Northern social paradigms;

the

adequacy

social

of

and

especially

as

alternatives with some environmental support

So much has already been accomplished, in a rough and ready way, and some

base.

results are illustrated in diagram^

•

J.

s.

Details of other positions, the old /and
culture

positions

(as

typically

offer

environmental

a

projected),

transition

alternative

And

from

are

left

and

the

counter

included in the diagram

the

while

new

the

dominant

it

may

Wester/l paradigm

appear

to

indeed is - a long

political way from the dominant paradigm to the environmental alternative,

of

the

and by sociological

assemblage,

the

organise

the

intermediate

steps is not so great;

each

and the steps can, and have, been

To illustrate the way transitions can

taken one at a time.

of the first line (row) in macro-economic form.

details

construed

components

package typically includes
environmient ,

as

this

to

minimal

quality

life

of

But the
and

with subtractions for externalities such as noise

and

and

pollution,

perhaps

*--- —,
M
with additions for non-material features excluded in dominant consciousness.

this way we arrive si Mew left thinking with the objective

subject

to considerable reservations, X(RR).

of

material

goes

back

philosophy;

Greek

to

In

growth

The real break however comes with

members of the counterculture, the hippies and Yippiesy for example, though

idea

the

objective functin to be maximized gets much complicated,
A

the

so

such

in a rough way stanadard of living.

representing

as

consider

The dominant objective

is to maximize some economic package of goods and services
being

made,

be

the

namely, the abandonment of growth and

maximization objectives altogether, for less material nonmaximizing

goals

At

the macroeconopic level, the idea gets^represented by the goal of a steady-state
or sustain able economy, though the alternative environmental objective will

be

for something much less inflexible and ^rationalistic than economists have so tar
sketched.

I

In

fact

the

"emerging

steady-state

paradigm",

which

Daly/

'

for

example^/advocates, affords only a shallow alternative to the dominant paradigm,

differing only as to growth and
paradigms

would include

steady state position;
remove

the

transition.

convenient

reserves

themes.

But

a

fuller

diagram

of

among others such advanced corporate capitalism - the
so it would involve a

JI simplification

over

higher-dimensional

diagram,

and

of the two dimensional left-right

However, the high" dimensional diagram indicates how a better argued
A

transition ,can be made;

essentially by combining steady-state arguments against

0
macroeconomic growth and stocks assumptions with the Left -yocialist case against
Even so, even with the combin/catioms, which does touch
themes.
Cl
human relations , ^anthropocentric framework would not have been left behind,

microeconomic

T

deeper environmental concern would have only began to enter

7

G-fiP

Reaching behind the dominant Western paradigm so outlined to the underlying

model takes us towards the following familiar picture:

social

society consists

of a set of individual humans of decidedly impoverished type, e.g.

they are not

genuinely interrelated, so they are isolated, and, though they are the only sort

of items that have intensional (mental) features, they have
(e.g.

certain

a

to

ability

few

but

of

these

At bottom, these individuals have

calculate).

utilities, reflecting preferences or self-interests, which they aim to maximize;

and

competitive (by virtue of scarcity).

are

they

so

that they are possessive, and possess

capital.

The

distinctive

the

means

Their other feature is

production,

of

to

this

about

self-interested
Features

There is nothing compulsory, or

Individuals

picture.

this

are

individuals

competing

these

approximating

matter

of

particularly

nurture,

abstract
nature.

not

of the American economic archtype are a matter of culture, a result oi

training, not human nature, as a comparison
where

their

To ensure

the initial argument, on this model, for the coercive

is

apparatus of the (minimal) state.
natural,

land,

of the American model is of course is that

feature

individuals can separately accumulate the means of production.

entitlement

e.g.

individuals

are

like

not

helps

this,

individuals embody rationality either:

with

othei'
show.

traditional

cultures,

lior do these archtypal

only a question-begging

argument

leads

to the American model as something naturally required.

The transitions to the left already go beyond the American model.
introduces

certain

The

relations.

human

chauvinistic (anthropocentric) but they

do

not

left

omit

models

are

social

The left

still

human

relations:

the

further big step to the environmental alternative is to widen these relations to

full community relations,
independent

value.

That

recognising
is

a

creatures

and

nonhuman

things

as

of

bigger step, a step that no Western political

institutions make requisite allowance

for,

Western value theories do not accommodate.

8

and

that

mainstream

underpinning

The arguments from traditional cultures can also be
illustrated

the

and

paradigms

cultures such as those

models

Melanesia

of

them.

underlie

that

and

directed

Polynesia,

the

In traditional

of

many

against

the

operative

assumptions of the Northern social paradigms are, very reasonably, not accepted.

Where these cultures still prevail with some measure of regional autonomy, there
is

good

prospect

more

thwarting

of

destructive practices.

environmentally

Features of the local culture can be immediately harnessed.

But much of the

inhabited

and

there are

already

observable

features

distinctive

unscathed

World

in

questioned, let alone overthrown, especially among the managerial

other,

even

or

lesser,

of

features

not exhaust features of the accompanying

out

leave

There are

cultures

significant

as

artistic

and

intellectual

to

icing.

be

This

discerned,

sure,

does

affords

European

culture

This

alternatives.

a

have

an

somewhat

as

that

in romanticism and a significant feature of American Indian

gives

the

basis

of

the

aesthetic

route

to

environmental

But there are as well more important omissions and discrepancies

In particular, the dominant American paradigm
religion;

but

Northern

features.

precarious foothold for an aesthetic approach to the environment, such
evidenced

So

conspicuous

other

usually

cultural

industrial culture, though economically dominated
accompanying

classes

The incomplete social paradigms outlined do

cultural features to be considered

surprisingly

Although

the cultures will have to be invoked if

change in approach is to be hastened in this way.

rather

now

cultures,

World

New

is

Northern paradigms have hardly been sufficiently

dominant

the

less

environmentally

peoples of predominantly European stock.

by

governed

of

assumptions

and

New

also

neglected

are

many

prominent values of American culture.

9

omits

reference

to

established

of the connected older and formerly more

The

American

search

tor

environmentally

acceptable

has

alternatives

regularly turned to these omitted features of American culture, and religious or

Indeed the primary attempts to

spiritual elements, and associated past values .

"the gospel of ecology" and displace the dominant paradigm have taken

establish

a spiritual route, a quasi-religious way.

and

sample

(For example, Nash provides a

list of the books he considers important in the rise of the

representative

virtually all that proceed beyond ecology

new environmentalism:

depend

on

an

appeal to religious elements, to divine or sacred features of natural things.)

In the context of American culture the appeal
something

to

be

said for it.

to

proportion

do

act

in

accordance

and, unlike

with

response.

And, secondly, religious values do clash with

dominant

Northern

paradigm.

has

features

For, firstly, a high proportion of the American

population profess some active religious commitment;

substantial

religious

This

sort

of

that

conflict

the

was

Australia,

socially
precepts

approved
of

perceived,

considerable puzzlement, by colonised cultures, as Lini reports in the

a

case

the
with

of

Melanesian society (p.9):

The fabric of this society, with its inherent communal discipline was
...
torn by the arrival of European commercial practices which
carried with it the message of materialism, together with the creed of
enlightened self-interest.
Both aspects were a direct contradiction
of Melanesian values and priorities. The introduction to Melanesia of
Christianity added a further element of division and confusion in the
minds of the people.
While the Christian religion was widely
compatible with the ethics and principles of Melanesian communalism,
with its emphasis on mutuality, compassion and caring for one another,
it was a practice that very few of the Europeans appeared to follow.
It ran also contrary to the
religion
of
individualism
and
self-interest, which not just (had) more important exponents, but was
followed by the majority of Europeans ...
It is something a a puzzle how the assimilation of elements of the dominant

Northern

paradigm with prospects of Christianity is pulled off, though achieved

it certainly is in a great many Northerners, and too many Antipodeans.
a

partial answer:

compartmentalisation.

10

There is

Religion tor most is a separate thing

fitted into a Sunday morning box, important elements of which do not

upset

the

business

standard

week.

such as human poverty:

to

Thus for most believers religion does not

Only for a minority does it directly

penetrate deep.

escape

touch

immediate

matters

why should we expect it to work for the Environment?

Nonetheless widespread real adoption of religious

perceptions

the

within

American population, and^reflected in the Administration, would presumably alter
things.

but even if some of the effects of a religious return would

beneficial,

and

domination

nature

were

be

negative

Religion could be more of a drawback than an asset.

with any depth to it appears most unlikely.
scientific

world

Unless moreover the position

abandoned in favour of one of the lesser religious

traditions the environmental effects would

"the

view".

scientific

(as

for

the case for its
much

virtue

front-end-in.

shape.

trying

in

It

return

to

the

There

is

world

view

in

such

great

is not just that there is much that this sort of view leaves out or

social

it is that this perspective, a paradigm,

paradigm.

So

incorporates

it is far from uniquely determined.

more intellectually satisfactory rivals (e.g.

view).

rival

view with these sorts of weaknesses

But nor is the so called scientific

cannot account for;

dominant

to

the

Consider, for instance, the matter of the

existence of God, the fallaciousness of the arguments involved, etc.
no

testifies).

Religion in America has lost out to

In part it failed deservedly:

view could explain.

Watt

In any case such a reversal

world view was seriously deficient and it did not account

more

highly

be welcomed, it is also true that some of the effects of a

to

narrow fundamentalism would be highly undesirable.

of

be

a richer

intensional

the

There are
scientific

These rivals allow for value and wonder in natural things without taking

a theological way.

11

There is a

set

second

quasi-religious

character

reasons

of
of

some

not

tor

sort,

a

These

the

on

turn

irreligious character of the culture, where an appeal through religion

success.

is unlikely to have much
understood

as

(the

a

barely relevant

generally

impose

Pantheistic or

Jewish,

Christian,

whatever, on deeper environmental approaches in Australia.
strongly

to

endeavouring

first)
’.

irreligious

Australia,

post-Christian

has

it

society, in which religion (is)

Even if that formulation

character

of

understanding much else about the culture,

the

e.g.

an

is

the

exaggeration

is a fact and is the

society

the

’best

is

said,

been

curious

to

extent

the

state’s protrusion into Australian social life.

If an approach through religion is accordingly ruled out as a main approach

to

hastened j paradigm

transition - and a related approach through mysticism or

transcen f1 ism excluded for analogous reasons and because of the

the

earthiness

There are other significant features

culture - what alternatives are open?

of the culture running against major elements of the dominant Western

which

can

be

perhaps

applied

approaches to turn matters
features

of

the

culture

around.
to

more

much

detach

effectively

indicate

To

of

from

than

quasi-religious

prospects

the

paradigms,

dominant

paradigm,

of

applying

consider how

Australian culture contrasts with American.

Australian mainstream culture
transition

from

the

dominant

is

already

American

political left has much stronger support in

difficult

to

some

culture.
Australia

way

along

the

leftward

is not merely that the

It

than

USA.

It

is

not

indicate features of the Australian cultural situation which show

its left—displacement from the dominant Western paradigm.
some elements of the contrast:-

12

The next table

lists

TABLE 2.

CONTRASTING ELEMENTS IN AUSTRALIAN AND AMERICAN CULTURE

—-- —>

SCALE OF INCREASE

individualistic ethos
inacceptability of socialist institutions

inegalitarian attitudes

POSITIVE

inegalitarian practices

ITEMS (PER

level of consumerism

CAPITA

maximization quest

WHERE

imperialist drive

relevant)

extent of violence

police and military commitment
high technology involvement

functional rationality

environmental inactivism

USA

AUSTRALIA

SCALE OF

INCREASE

level of urbanisation
legal obstacles to environmental action
NEGATIVE

{practices, such as dedication of

wilderness

ITEMS

administrative delays in implementing

environmental practices, such as
pollution requirements, recycling, etc.

Thus there are some offsetting negative items as well as positive items

13

in

the

contrast.

themes

Since, however, most of these contrasting elements bear on
first

for

opposed to American, it appears that prospects
indeed

This

better.

important

environmental

spectators

the

applying

culture

are

theme requires ela^boration and confirmation.

The task can profitably be combined with others:
for

the

rival paradigms in a way favourable to Australian culture as

of

diagram

in

an

with

there is much work

empirical

here

both

and for environmental

bent

activists.

A first task is to separate out what is known, what requires

and their eommund'B, distinguishing
theses:

/

Let us focus on transition theses,

ought to be done (ideologically)

what

and

normative

and

factual

transition

factual transition thesis, that Western (European) culture is

weak

A

firstly

confirmation,

^/undergoing a transition away

from

the

dominant

confirmed by several Northern sociologists (e.g.
better results could be obtained in Australia;

paradigm,

social

has

been

Presumably similar or

Marsh).

but appropriate samplings of the

community have not been done, analysed and so on - environmental sociology being
a

neglected

undoubtedly

field

in

Another

Australia.

weak

transition

factual

thesis

holds, namely that since 1960 a significant percentage of the

also

ertreii human community in specifiable advanced Western countries such as Australia

have

to adopt main assumptions of the alternative environmental paradigm,

come

but again comparative—figures
sociological

work

are

entirely

of

data

to

Though

impressionistic

tells us that environmental activism is greater in Australia

than OSA - indeed more intensive than

piece

lacking.

anywhere

else,

an

immensely

build upon - we lack solid confirmation.

sociogeographers to do.

14

important

There is much for

Throughout, as you may have noticed, a normative transition thesis has been
largely

taken

granted,

for

that

generally, l&ght to^undergoing

Western

and

paradigms

an

towards

and

to

rguments.

the

repeat

furthermore

alternative.

environmental

thesis is argued for in environmental philosophy, and

time

dominant

from

away

variations (such as those of advocated corporate

their

capitalism an.d of the post-industrial society) ,

transitivity*

shift,

paradigm

major

a

culture, indeed Western culture

Australian

to

ought

be

complex normative

That

isn’t

there

fortunately

It is also argued against there, but> to sum up

the opposition case, unconvincingly.

Given then that the transition is going on,

and

to

ought

going

be

on,

ought then to be going on with greater rapidity, how is it hastened, how

indeed

do environmental activists
emerging

are

enough.

clear

it

encourage

in

Australia.

Preliminary

answers

Not only should activists be continuing with what

I
they

are

directing

doing

organisations

the

and

environmental

and

those

like,

to

supposed

action

(public)

further

them,

of

industrial

prluwryprimarily,

regulate

not merely by membership drives and environmental
influence

to

and

swing

the

should

education.

be

dominant^ regional culture , for the
w

potential appears to be there for a considerably greater change
been achieved.

sources

They should also be aiming to increase their support bases , but

organisations.

endeavouring

the

against

than

has

thus/

There are two major parts to this further practice which can run

in tandem, a more negative and a more positive part:
0

More negatively.it
z

involves

curring

down

and

countering

the

flow

propaganda

in favour of the dominant paradigms both locally but especiall

the North.

That is important in reversing the extent

It

includes

Northern

from

co-^option

a range of activities some with solid bases in local culture, such

as gently lopping

anti-American

of

of

off

the

tall

poppies

and anti-Nor them activities.

15

pedalling

the

stuff,

and

careful

The latter practices (which should

not of course reduce merely to personally directed antagonism) fit in well

aims, such as independent and nonaligned defence

environmental

regional

other

with

policies

•

More positively, it consists in promoting and adapting other

despised

features

It

alternative paradigms

commonly

is

intellectuals

Northern

are,

of

course,

like

those

nonmaximizing making-do socialistic ones,

of

appreciation

natural

local

The features to tye

Lawrence).

cultural characters are held (e.g

I

the

egalitarian,

along

environments.

with

the

consider the effects of these, decently applied, in

or

antiauthoritarian,
A
rapidly increasing

taken

to

things,

conomics, in local

As for mateship, sure it could use widening, a pain problem being its I hra/sv

restriction in
communities

promoted

in Fair go and Enough* s

with egalitarian methods as

combines

markets.

cultural

Nonmaximizing, for example, is

reflected in the She’ll be right and It'11 do approach dften

enough:

and

note, that are responsible for the low repute in which some of the

ambassadors,

and

commonly

culture that work directly towards themes of

Australian

of

also

to male relationships:

(including

cultural transformation:

nonhumans).

but encourage

its

extension

So, to conclude, the potential is^for

we must help to realise it

FOOTNOTES

1.

The term ’approaches’ is intended to include both theory and practice,
espoused ideology and behaviour.

2.

They did not go under because of the weakness of their intellectual
positions.
At bottom their religious beliefs, for example, were no more
ridiculous than those of Christianity. Typically they were much weakened by
new diseases, and overwhelmed by new technology often applied in violent
fashion.

3.

Another past philosophical basis for environmental philosophy, American
naturalism, seems to have been little developed, despite the promise some
have seen in it.

16

both

4.

By integrity is meant much more than retaining representative samples of
this and that system or species; not representative southern sassafras,
parma wallabies and Torres Strait Islanders, but sufficiently many.

17

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